MOTIVATION. LECTURE
What is Motivation?
- Motivation is a concept that describes the forces acting on an employee that initiate and direct behaviour towards goals.
- The process begins with a physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive.
- Armstrong(2009) defines motivation as the factors that influence people to behave in certain ways.
- Work motivation is anything, whether tangible or intangible, that energizes, directs and sustains employee behaviour.
Components/Elements of Motivation
Three key elements contained in the definition of motivation are:
Energy, Direction, and Persistence.
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Energy is a measure of intensity, drive, and vigor. A motivated person puts forth effort and works hard. However, the quality of the effort must be considered as well as its intensity.
High levels of effort don’t necessarily lead to favourable job performance unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. Effort that is directed toward, and consistent with, organizational goals is the kind of effort we want from employees.
Motivation includes a persistence dimension. Employees are expected to persist in putting forth effort to achieve those goals.
Approaches to Motivation
Many different theories about work motivation have been suggested. Although each theory offers some insight into this complex topic, no single theory adequately addresses all aspects of motivation.
The many different theories of motivation can be easily grouped into three general approaches:
- Managerial approach
- Job and organizational approach
- Individual differences approach
Managerial Approach
The managerial approach to motivating employees focuses on the behaviours of managers, and in particular, their use of goals and rewards.
The managers that employees work with on a day-to-day basis can directly motivate employees through personal, one-on-one communication. For example, they can work with employees to set realistic goals and then use recognition, praise and monetary means to reward employees for achieving those goals.
Job and Organizational Approach
Here, emphasis is on the design of jobs and the general organizational environment. For instance, enriched jobs are more motivating than jobs that are narrow in scope.
The organizational context is also very important. Human resource management policies and practices are generally an important aspect of the organizational context.
The appropriate benefits (eg. Sick leave, paid vacations, insurance), reward structure (eg. Incentive pay), and development opportunities (eg. Education and mentoring) may attract new employees to the organization. However, whether such policies serve to increase employee effort and desire to stay with the company depends partly on whether employees perceive them to be fair and equitable.
Individual Differences Approach
This approach treats motivation as a characteristic of the individual. Individual differences are the unique needs, values, competencies, and other personal characteristics that employees bring to their jobs; these characteristics vary from one person to the other.
One may be motivated to earn more money; another by security; yet another may thrive on challenges.
Effective managers understand the individual differences that shape each employee’s unique view of work and use this understanding to maximize each employee’s effectiveness.
Using Goals and Rewards to Improve Performance
Managers who are in direct contact with employees may be the most important influences on the motivation levels of employees. Good managers don’t just make employees feel comfortable; they help them to be productive.
Two proven ways to help employees be productive are to be sure that they have clear and challenging goals to strive for and to be sure that employees feel good about achieving those goals.
Setting Goals
Goals affect motivation in two ways: by increasing the amount of effort people choose to exert and by directing or channeling that effort. When employees accept a goal as something to strive for and then commit to achieving that goal, they essentially agree to exert the amount of effort required to do so.
The goal setting theory states that managers can direct the performance of their employees by assigning specific, challenging goals that employees accept and are willing to commit to. Goal setting can be effective only if employees have the competencies needed to achieve the goals and receive feedback about their progress toward achieving them.
Offering Incentives and Rewards
Reward for goal achievement increase motivation and performance because they strengthen the level of commitment that employees feel.
Reinforcement theory states that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Thus Positive Consequences = Rewards; Negative Consequences= Punishments.
The basic principles of reinforcement are that behaviour followed by pleasant consequences is more likely to be repeated, and that behaviour followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. According to the theory, behaviours currently seen in an organization are there because employees are being reinforced for them.
Thus a manager who wants to change an employee’s behaviour must change the specific consequences of that behaviour.
Self-Management
Just as managers can use the principles of goal setting and reinforcement to change the behaviour and performance of employees, so too can employees. With a bit of training, employees can learn to set their own goals, provide their own reinforcements, and even monitor their results over time. Taking an active self-management approach to job performance and career progress is one way to improve long-term outcomes, such as quicker promotions and higher salary levels.
Job Content and Organizational Context on Motivation
The theories here consider organizational conditions that may not be under the control of an individual manager.
This approach treats motivation as a characteristic of the individual. Individual differences are the unique needs, values, competencies, and other personal characteristics that employees bring to their jobs; these characteristics vary from one person to the other.
One may be motivated to earn more money; another by security; yet another may thrive on challenges.
Effective managers understand the individual differences that shape each employee’s unique view of work and use this understanding to maximize each employee’s effectiveness.
Using Goals and Rewards to Improve Performance
Managers who are in direct contact with employees may be the most important influences on the motivation levels of employees. Good managers don’t just make employees feel comfortable; they help them to be productive.
Two proven ways to help employees be productive are to be sure that they have clear and challenging goals to strive for and to be sure that employees feel good about achieving those goals.
Setting Goals
Goals affect motivation in two ways: by increasing the amount of effort people choose to exert and by directing or channeling that effort. When employees accept a goal as something to strive for and then commit to achieving that goal, they essentially agree to exert the amount of effort required to do so.
The goal setting theory states that managers can direct the performance of their employees by assigning specific, challenging goals that employees accept and are willing to commit to. Goal setting can be effective only if employees have the competencies needed to achieve the goals and receive feedback about their progress toward achieving them.
Offering Incentives and Rewards
Reward for goal achievement increase motivation and performance because they strengthen the level of commitment that employees feel.
Reinforcement theory states that behaviour is a function of its consequences. Thus Positive Consequences = Rewards; Negative Consequences= Punishments.
The basic principles of reinforcement are that behaviour followed by pleasant consequences is more likely to be repeated, and that behaviour followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. According to the theory, behaviours currently seen in an organization are there because employees are being reinforced for them.
Thus a manager who wants to change an employee’s behaviour must change the specific consequences of that behaviour.
Self-Management
Just as managers can use the principles of goal setting and reinforcement to change the behaviour and performance of employees, so too can employees. With a bit of training, employees can learn to set their own goals, provide their own reinforcements, and even monitor their results over time. Taking an active self-management approach to job performance and career progress is one way to improve long-term outcomes, such as quicker promotions and higher salary levels.
Job Content and Organizational Context on Motivation
The theories here consider organizational conditions that may not be under the control of an individual manager.
- Herzberg’s Two-Factortheory
- Adam’s Equitytheory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory states that two separate and distinct aspects of the environment are responsible for motivating and satisfying employees.
The terms motivator factors and hygiene factors refer to these two aspects of the environment.
The assumption of this theory is that motivator and hygiene factors are similar for all employees.
Motivator Factors are aspects of job content and organizational context that create positive feelings among employees (i.e., Challenge of the work itself, Responsibility, Recognition, Achievement, Advancement, Growth). These factors determine whether a job is exciting and rewarding. However, their presence along does not guarantee improved productivity.
Hygiene Factors are the non-task characteristics of the work environment that create dissatisfaction. They include compensation, working conditions, company policies, supervision, coworkers, salary, formal status, and job security. These factors need to be present to some extent to avoid dissatisfaction.
Equity Theory states that motivation levels can be enhanced or diminished by employees’ judgments about whether the organization is treating them fairly.
Employees compare the ratio of their inputs and outcomes to the ratios of others doing similar work.
Inputs are what an employee give to the job (e.g., time, effort, education, and commitment).
Outcomes are what people get out of doing the job (e.g., feeling of meaningfulness and responsibility associated with jobs, promotions, and increased pay)
Some alternatives available to employees who want to reduce their feelings of
inequity.
i.Increase inputs (e.g., time and effort) to justify higher rewards.
ii.Decrease inputs to compensate for lower rewards.
iii.Change the compensation received through legal or other actions.
iv.Modify the comparisons by choosing another person to compare with.
v.Distort reality by rationalizing that the inequities are justified.
vi.Leave the situation if the inequities cannot be resolved. Quit!
Individual Differences in Motivation
People differ from each other in many ways, having different abilities, personalities, values, and needs. A need is a strong feeling of deficiency in some aspects of a person’s life that creates an uncomfortable tension.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory
Alderfer’sERG theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow believed that people have five types of needs, and suggested that as a person satisfies each level of needs, motivation shifts to satisfying the next higher level of needs.
Physiological Needs: A person’s need for food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and other physical needs.
Safety/Security Needs: A person’s need for security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
Social/Affiliation Needs: A person’s need for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
Esteem Needs: Needs for self respect, autonomy, achievement, status, recognition, attention.
Self-Actualisation Needs: A person’s need to become what he or she is capable of becoming.
Like Maslow, Alderfer looked at motivation from a needs perspective. His ERG theory specifies three needs categories: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. These three needs are also organized in a hierarchy.
Existence Needs are the desires for material and physical well-being that are satisfied through food, water, shelter, working conditions, pay, fringe benefits.
Relatedness Needs are the desires to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships with other people, including family, friends, supervisors, subordinates, and coworkers.
Growth Needs are the desires to be creative, to make useful and productive contributions, and to have opportunities for personal development.
Points for Reflection …
i.Increase inputs (e.g., time and effort) to justify higher rewards.
ii.Decrease inputs to compensate for lower rewards.
iii.Change the compensation received through legal or other actions.
iv.Modify the comparisons by choosing another person to compare with.
v.Distort reality by rationalizing that the inequities are justified.
vi.Leave the situation if the inequities cannot be resolved. Quit!
Individual Differences in Motivation
People differ from each other in many ways, having different abilities, personalities, values, and needs. A need is a strong feeling of deficiency in some aspects of a person’s life that creates an uncomfortable tension.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory
Alderfer’sERG theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow believed that people have five types of needs, and suggested that as a person satisfies each level of needs, motivation shifts to satisfying the next higher level of needs.
Physiological Needs: A person’s need for food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and other physical needs.
Safety/Security Needs: A person’s need for security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
Social/Affiliation Needs: A person’s need for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
Esteem Needs: Needs for self respect, autonomy, achievement, status, recognition, attention.
Self-Actualisation Needs: A person’s need to become what he or she is capable of becoming.
Like Maslow, Alderfer looked at motivation from a needs perspective. His ERG theory specifies three needs categories: Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. These three needs are also organized in a hierarchy.
Existence Needs are the desires for material and physical well-being that are satisfied through food, water, shelter, working conditions, pay, fringe benefits.
Relatedness Needs are the desires to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships with other people, including family, friends, supervisors, subordinates, and coworkers.
Growth Needs are the desires to be creative, to make useful and productive contributions, and to have opportunities for personal development.
Points for Reflection …
Some Guidelines for Managers:
a.Design jobs with high motivating potential
b.Provide frequent and constructive feedback
c.Provide rewards for desired behaviours and outcomes
d.Provide rewards that employees value
e.Provide equitable rewards
f.Diagnose and remove barriers to performance
a.Design jobs with high motivating potential
b.Provide frequent and constructive feedback
c.Provide rewards for desired behaviours and outcomes
d.Provide rewards that employees value
e.Provide equitable rewards
f.Diagnose and remove barriers to performance